Nutrition concepts and controversies 12th edition by sizer

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In some cases, end of chapter questions may vary slightly from the US edition. International Editions are typically printed in grayscale, and likely will not have any color throughout the book. By whatever name, choosing a sufficient variety of these foods each day is an easy way to obtain a nutritious diet.

On a given day, however, almost three-quarters of our population consume too few vegetables, and two-thirds of us fail to consume enough fruit. Such dietary patterns make development of chronic diseases more likely. Read the comment at the end of each definition. These foods are generally considered to form the basis of a nutritious diet.

Also called basic foods. If the starting material is a whole, basic food such as milk or whole grain, the result may be highly nutritious. If the starting material is a concentrated form of sugar or fat, the result may be less nutritious.

However, all nutritious foods can support health in some ways; Controversy 2 provides details. Often used to sell unnecessary or unproven supplements. In chemistry, however, all foods are made mostly of organic carbon-containing compounds. See Chapter 12 for details.

Depending on the starting material and the process, a processed food may or may not be nutritious. If well chosen, these foods are nutritious. In , Americans chose from among or so different foods; today, they choose from more than 50, Thousands of foods now line the market shelves—many are processed mixtures of the basic ones, and some are even constructed mostly from artificial ingredients.

Ironically, this abundance often makes it more difficult, rather than easier, to plan a nutritious diet. The food-related terms defined in Table reveal that all types of food—including fast foods and processed foods—offer various constituents to the eater. You may also hear about functional foods, a marketing term coined to identify those foods containing substances, natural or added, that might lend protection against chronic diseases.

The trouble is, scientists trying to single out the most healthpromoting foods find that almost every naturally occurring food—even chocolate— All foods once looked like this. The extent to which foods support good health depends on the calories, nutrients, and phytochemicals they contain.

Even more important, you need to know how to combine foods into nutritious diets. Foods are not nutritious by themselves; each is of value only insofar as it contributes to a nutritious diet.

A key to wise diet planning is to make sure that the foods you eat daily, your staple foods, are especially nutritious. A nutritious diet has five characteristics. First is adequacy: the foods provide enough of each essential nutrient, fiber, and energy. Second is balance: the choices do not overemphasize one nutrient or food type at the expense of another.

Th ird is calorie control: the foods provide the amount of energy you need to maintain appropriate weight—not more, not less. Fourth is moderation: the foods do not provide excess fat, salt, sugar, or other unwanted constituents. Fifth is variety: the foods chosen differ from one day to the next. In addition, to maintain a steady supply of nutrients, meals should occur with regular timing throughout the day.

Adequacy Any nutrient could be used to demonstrate the importance of dietary adequacy the dietary characteristic of providing all of the essential nutrients, fiber, and energy in amounts sufficient to maintain health and body weight.

Also called proportionality. Also defined in Chapter 6. Iron provides a familiar example. It is an essential nutrient: you lose some every day, so you have to keep replacing it; and you can get it into your body only by eating foods that contain it.

Some foods are rich in iron; others are notoriously poor. If you add iron-rich foods to your diet, you soon feel more energetic. Meat, fish, poultry, and legumes are in the iron-rich category, and an easy way to obtain the needed iron is to include these foods in your diet regularly. Balance To appreciate the importance of dietary balance, consider a second essential nutrient, calcium. Most foods that are rich in iron are poor in calcium.

Clearly, to obtain enough of both iron and calcium, people have to balance their food choices among the types of foods that provide specific nutrients. Balancing the whole diet to provide enough but not too much of every one of the odd nutrients the body needs for health requires considerable juggling, however.

As you will see in Chapter 2, food group plans that cluster rich sources of nutrients into food groups can help you to achieve dietary adequacy and balance because they recommend specific amounts of foods from each group. Balance among the food groups then becomes the goal. Calorie Control Energy intakes should not exceed energy needs. Nicknamed calorie control, this diet characteristic ensures that energy intakes from food balance energy expenditures required for body functions and physical activity.

Eating such a diet helps to control body fat content and weight. The many strategies that promote this goal appear in Chapter 9. A major guideline for healthy people is to keep fat intake below 35 percent of total calories. A steady diet of steak and ice cream might be harmful, but once a week as part of an other wise moderate diet plan, these foods may have little impact; as once-a-month treats, these foods would have practically no effect at all. Moderation also means that limits are necessary, even for desirable food constituents.

For example, a certain amount of fiber in foods contributes to the health of the digestive system, but too much fiber leads to nutrient losses. Variety As for variety, nutrition scientists agree that people should not eat the same foods, even highly nutritious ones, day after day.

One reason is that a varied diet is more likely to be adequate in nutrients. Another reason is that a monotonous diet may deliver large amounts of toxins or contaminants.

Such undesirable compounds in one food are diluted by all the other foods eaten with it and are diluted still further if the food is not eaten again for several days. Last, variety adds interest—trying new foods can be a source of pleasure.

A caution is in order. Any one of these dietary principles alone cannot ensure a healthful diet. For example, the most likely outcome of relying solely on variety could easily be a low-nutrient, high-calorie diet consisting of a variety of snack foods and nutrient-poor sweets. Establishing the A, B, C, M, V habit may take some effort, but the payoff in terms of improved health is overwhelming.

Table takes an honest look at some common excuses for not eating well. Variety Variety Moderation Moderation K E Y P OIN T A well-planned diet is adequate in nutrients, is balanced with regard to food types, offers food energy that matches energy expended in activity, is moderate in unwanted constituents, and offers a variety of nutritious foods.

Each day, people choose from the available foods, prepare the foods, decide where to eat, which customs to follow, and with whom to dine. Many factors influence food-related choices. Everyone is busy. Convenience packages of frozen vegetables, jars of pasta sauce, and prepared meats and salads make nutritious meals in little time. Not a high priority. Occasional fast-food meals and sweets in moderation are acceptable in a nutritious diet.

Too little money. Eating right costs no more than eating poorly. Chips, colas, fast food, and premium ice cream cost as much or more per serving as nutritious foods. Vitamin pills cannot make up for consistently poor food choices. Lipsky, Are energy-dense foods really cheaper? Reexamining the relation between food price and energy density, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 90 : — Sharing ethnic food can be symbolic: people offering foods are expressing a willingness to share cherished values with others.

Developing cultural competence is particularly important for professionals who help others to achieve a nutritious diet. Today some people are ceasing to be omnivores and are becoming vegetarians. Vegetarians often choose this lifestyle because they honor the lives of animals or because they have discovered the health and other advantages associated with diets rich in beans, whole grains, fruits, nuts, and vegetables.

Sharing ethnic food is a way of sharing culture. They frequently eat out, bring home ready-to-eat meals, cook meals ahead in commercial kitchens, or have food delivered. Convenience is only one consideration. Physical, psychological, social, and philosophical factors all influence how you choose the foods you generally eat. The media have persuaded you to consume these foods. They are present in the environment and accessible to you.

They are within your financial means. Emotional comfort. They can make you feel better for a while. They are familiar; you always eat them.

Personal preference and genetic inheritance. You like the way these foods taste, with some preferences possibly determined by the genes. Positive: They are eaten by people you admire, or they indicate status, or they remind you of fun. Negative: They were forced on you or you became ill while eating them. Region of the country. They are foods favored in your area. Social pressure. Values or beliefs.

They fit your religious tradition, square with your political views, or honor the environmental ethic. You think they will help to control body weight. Nutrition and health benefits.

You think they are good for you. Just the last two of these reasons for choosing foods assign a high priority to nutritional health. Similarly, the choice of where, as well as what, to eat is often based more on social considerations than on nutrition judgments.

College students often choose to eat at fast-food and other restaurants to socialize, to get out, to save time, or to date; they are not always conscious of the need to obtain nutritious food.

Nutrition understanding depends upon a firm base of scientific knowledge. Many factors other than nutrition drive food choices. Unlike sciences such as astronomy and physics, nutrition is a relatively young science. Most nutrition research has been conducted since The first vitamin was identified in , and the first protein structure was not fully described until the mids.

Because nutrition science is an active, changing, growing body of knowledge, scientific findings often seem to contradict one another or are subject to conflicting interpretations.

To understand why apparent contradictions sometimes arise in nutrition science, we need to look fi rst at what scientists do. They design and conduct various experiments to test for possible answers see Figure and Table When they have ruled out some possibilities and found evidence for others, they submit their findings, not to the news media, but to boards of reviewers composed of other scientists who try to pick the findings apart.

Finally, the work is published in scientific journals where still more scientists can read it. Then the news reporters read it and write about it and you can read it, too. Table explains what you can expect to find in a journal article. The Scientific Method Research scientists follow the scientific method. Note that most research projects result in new questions, not final answers. Thus, research continues in a somewhat cyclical manner.

Even after publication, other scientists try to duplicate the work of the first researchers to support or refute the original finding. Only when a finding has stood up to rigorous, repeated testing in several kinds of experiments performed by several different researchers is it finally considered confirmed.

Even then, strictly speaking, science consists not of facts that are set in stone, but of theories that can always be challenged and revised. Some findings, though, like the theory that the earth revolves about the sun, are so well supported by observations and experimental findings that they are generally accepted as facts.

Health outcomes are observed in a group of people who receive the treatment and are then compared with outcomes in a control group of similar people who received a placebo an inert or sham treatment. Ideally, neither subjects nor researchers know who receives the treatment and who gets the placebo a double-blind study. The type of study chosen for research depends upon what sort of information the researchers require. Studies of individuals case studies yield observations that may lead to possible avenues of research.

A study of a man who ate gumdrops and became a famous dancer might suggest that an experiment be done to see if gumdrops contain dance-enhancing power. Studies of whole populations epidemiological studies provide another sort of information. Such a study can reveal a correlation. For example, an epidemiological study might find no worldwide correlation of gumdrop eating with fancy footwork but, unexpectedly, might reveal a correlation with tooth decay.

In such a study, one set of subjects the experimental group receive a treatment, and another set the control group go untreated or receive a placebo or sham treatment. If the study is a blind experiment, the subjects do not know who among the members receives the treatment and who receives the sham. For example, an intervention study might show that withholding gumdrops, together with other candies and confections, reduced the incidence of tooth decay in an experimental population compared to that in a control population.

Finally, laboratory studies can pinpoint the mechanisms by which nutrition acts. Feeding various forms of gumdrops to rats might yield the information that sugar, in a gummy carrier, promotes tooth decay. Intervention studies and laboratory experiments are among the most powerful tools in nutrition research because they show the effects of treatments. To repeat: the only source of valid nutrition information is slow, painstaking, authentic scientific research. We believe a nutrition fact to be true because it has been supported, time and again, in experiments designed to rule out all other possibilities.

In a double-blind experiment, neither the subjects nor the researchers know to which group the members belong until the end of the experiment. In clinical settings, researchers can observe treatments and their apparent effects.

To prove that a treatment has produced an effect requires simultaneous observation of an untreated similar subject a case control. Also called control subjects. See also experimental group and intervention studies. A correlation between two factors suggests that one may cause the other but does not rule out the possibility that both may be caused by chance or by a third factor. Also called experimental subjects. See also control group and intervention studies. Such studies often use animals as subjects.

The placebo effect is the healing effect that the act of treatment, rather than the treatment itself, often has. The news media are hungry for new findings, and reporters often latch onto ideas from the scientific laboratories before they have been fully tested.

Also, a reporter who lacks a strong understanding of science may misunderstand complex scientific principles. The abstract provides a brief overview of the article. The introduction clearly states the purpose of the current study. Review of literature. A review of the literature reveals all that science has uncovered on the subject to date. The methodology section defines key terms and describes the procedures used in the study.

The results report the findings and may include summary tables and figures. The conclusions drawn are those supported by the data and reflect the original purpose as stated in the introduction. Usually, they answer a few questions and raise several more.

The references list relevant studies including key studies several years old as well as current ones. Gabriel See two students talking about how they learned the truth about nutrition claims made in advertising. To hear their stories, log on to www. As a result, the public is often exposed to late-breaking nutrition news stories before the findings are fully confi rmed.

Then, when the hypothesis being tested fails to hold up to a later challenge, consumers feel betrayed by what is simply the normal course of science at work.

It also follows that people who take action based on single studies are almost always acting impulsively, not scientifically. The real scientists are trend watchers. They evaluate the methods used in each study, assess each study in light of the evidence gleaned from other studies, and modify little by little their picture of what is true.

The Consumer Corner in this chapter offers some tips for evaluating news stories about nutrition. Sometimes media sensationalism overrates the importance of even true, replicated findings.

For example, a few years ago the media eagerly reported that oat bran lowers blood cholesterol, a lipid indicative of heart disease risk. Although the reports were true, oat bran is only one of several hundred factors that affect blood cholesterol.

News reports on oat bran often failed to mention that cutting intakes of certain fats is still the major step to take to lower blood cholesterol. Also, new findings need refinements. Oat bran and oatmeal truly are cholesterol reducers, but how much must a person eat to produce the desired effects?

Do little oat bran pills or powders meet the need? Do oat bran cookies? If so, how many cookies? For oatmeal, it takes a bowl-and-a-half daily to affect blood lipids.

A few cookies cannot provide nearly so much and certainly cannot undo all the damage from a high-fat meal. The whole process of discovery, challenge, and vindication took almost 10 years of research. Some other lines of research have taken many years longer.

In science, a single finding almost never makes a crucial difference to our knowledge as a whole, but like each individual frame in a movie, it contributes a little to the big picture. Many such frames are needed to tell the whole story. National Nutrition Research As you study nutrition, you are likely to hear of findings based on two ongoing national scientific research projects.

I quit. No more diet changes for me. He, like many others, feels betrayed when, years later, science appears to have turned its advice upside down. It bears repeating: a single study never proves or disproves anything. An unpublished study or one from a less credible source may or may not be Reading Nutrition News with an Educated Eye valid; the reader has no way of knowing because the study lacks scrutiny by other experts.

If they were human beings, the more you have in common with them age and gender, for example , the more applicable the findings may be for you. Some reporters regularly follow developments in a research area and thus acquire the background knowledge needed to write meaningfully. Review articles describe findings of many studies on the same topic. Moore consumer corner A person wanting the whole story on a nutrition topic is wise to seek articles from peerreviewed journals such as these.

A review journal examines all available evidence on major topics. Other journals report details of the methods, results, and conclusions of single studies. Finally, ask yourself if the study makes sense for you. Even if it turns out that the fat of margarine is damaging to the heart, do you eat enough margarine to worry about its effects? Is butter even worse? It may indeed be a carefully researched report, but often it is a sensational story intended to catch the attention of newspaper and magazine buyers, not to offer useful nutrition information.

Examination Surveys NHANES , is a nationwide project that gathers information from about 50, people using diet histories, physical examinations and measurements, and laboratory tests. Nutrition monitoring makes it possible for research scientists to assess the nutrient status, health indicators, and dietary intakes of the U. The agencies involved with these efforts are listed in the margin. The value comes when people use it to improve their diets.

To act on knowledge, people must change their behaviors, and while this may sound simple enough, behavior change often takes substantial effort. The Process of Change Psychologists describe six stages of behavior change, offered in Table Knowing these stages can help you to recognize where you stand in relation to your own goals. Table also demonstrates how to use this information to move forward in achieving your behavior change goals.

Assessments and Goals Many people need to change their daily routines to include physical activity. Motivation may be either instinctive inborn drives such as hunger and thirst or learned such as the drive to acquire possessions or to improve health.

Some problems, such as never consuming a vegetable, can be easy to spot. More subtle dietary problems, such as failing to meet your need for a particular vitamin or mineral, can have serious repercussions but often must be revealed by a study of the diet.

Then, setting small, achievable goals in areas that need changing is the next step to making improvements. Realistic goals for body weight are discussed in Chapter 9. Obstacles to Change It is a rare person who, upon setting out to change a behavior, encounters only smooth progress toward the final goal. Stages of Behavior Change Stage Characteristics Actions Precontemplation Not considering a change, have no intention of changing; see no problems with current behavior. Collect information about health effects of current behavior and potential benefits of change.

Contemplation Admit that change may be needed; weigh pros and cons of changing and not changing. Commit to making a change and set a date to start. Preparation Preparing to change a specific behavior, taking initial steps, and setting some goals. Write an action plan, spelling out specific parts of the change. Set small-step goals; tell others about the plan. Action Committing time and energy to making a change; following a plan set for a specific behavior change.

Perform the new behavior. Manage emotional and physical reactions to the change. Maintenance Striving to integrate the new behavior into daily life and striving to make it permanent. Persevere through lapses.

Teach others and help them achieve their own goals. This stage can last for years. After months or a year of maintenance without lapses, move on to other goals. Competence The first obstacle, competence, is by far the most easily corrected. For example, a student who recognizes a lack of vegetables in her diet and wishes to increase her intake may not know how to prepare vegetables. Seeking information from a family cook can supply the missing knowledge, and trying out some recipes can bolster her skills.

To deal with a serious threat, such as an eating disorder or excessive alcohol intake, outside help from reputable agencies may be needed to accomplish a change.

Outside help for making a change may be available from the professionals at a campus health center, counseling center, or community helping agency. Jotting down records of her snacks allows her to measure her success and identify obstacles to vegetable consumption. People who take action and often succeed tend to be those with the quality of self-efficacy, that is, they believe in their own abilities. The opposite, an external locus of control, leaves one feeling helpless against outside forces, such as luck or fate.

In other words, the more you believe in yourself and your ability to change your life for the better, the more likely that you will succeed in doing so.

Motivation The toughest obstacle to changing, however, may be a lack of motivation. The Concept of Rewards Motivation is often based on the concept of rewards— the person making a change must expect that important rewards will follow the altered behaviors.

The value of the reward. How big is the reward? Its timing. The costs. What will be the risks or consequences of seeking the reward? Its probability. How likely is the reward to occur, and how certain the price? If motivation to make dietary changes eludes people, the reason is often because of timing, cost, and probability factors.

No wonder so many people fail to change their poor food habits! Start Now It is natural, as you progress through this text, to contemplate changing some of your own food habits.

If you are ready to move beyond contemplation to preparation and action, the CengageNow Internet website offers some help. Busy chefs should seek out convenience foods that are nutrient-dense, such as bags of ready-to-serve salads, refrigerated prepared low-fat meats and poultry, canned beans, and frozen vegetables.

Dried fruit and dry-roasted nuts require only that they be kept on hand and make a tasty, nutritious topper for salads and other foods. To round out the meal, fatfree milk is both nutritious and convenient. These two breakfasts provide about calories each, but they differ greatly in the nutrients they provide per calorie. Note that the sausage in the larger breakfast is lower-calorie turkey sausage, not the high-calorie pork variety.

Making small choices like this at each meal can add up to large calorie savings, making room in the diet for more servings of nutritious foods and even some treats. Energy According to the experts, people in the United States are not very successful at selecting diets that meet their nutrition needs.

In particular, only a tiny percentage of adults manage to achieve both adequacy and moderation. In trying to control calories while balancing the diet and making it adequate, certain foods are especially useful. These foods are rich in nutrients relative to their energy contents; that is, they are foods with high nutrient density.

Consider calcium sources, for example. Ice cream and fatfree milk both supply calcium, but the milk is denser in calcium per calorie. A cup of rich ice cream contributes more than calories, a cup of fat-free milk only 85—and with almost double the calcium. Those who do very often exceed calorie allowances while leaving nutrient needs unmet.

Nutrient density is such a useful concept in diet planning that this book encourages you to think in those terms. Right away, the next chapter asks you to apply your knowledge of nutrient density while developing skills in meal planning. Watch for tables and figures in later chapters that show the best buys among foods, not necessarily in nutrients per dollar, but in nutrients per calorie.

Among foods that often rank high in nutrient density are the vegetables, particularly the nonstarchy vegetables such as broccoli, carrots, mushrooms, peppers, and tomatoes.

These inexpensive foods take time to prepare, but time invested in this way pays off in nutritional health. Twenty minutes spent peeling and slicing vegetables for a salad is a better investment in nutrition than 20 minutes spent fixing a fancy, highfat, high-sugar dessert.

Besides, the dessert ingredients often cost more money and strain the calorie budget, too. The Food Features of later chapters offer many more tips for choosing convenient and nutritious foods.

All of this discussion leads to a principle that is central to achieving nutritional health: It is not the individual foods you choose, but the way you combine them into meals and the way you arrange meals to follow one another over days and weeks that determine how well you are nourishing yourself. Nutrition is a science, not an art, but it can be used artfully to create a pleasing, nourishing diet. To get started, do the following: 1. Click Create PDF button. You will now have DRI values for calories, carbohydrates, and fat appropriate for your Profile.

For the next three days, with pencil and paper, keep track of everything you eat and drink. Be honest and careful in your record-keeping. Measure or estimate amounts of foods and beverages you consume, as well as margarine or butter, salt, cream sauces, gravies, pasta sauce, ketchup, relish, jams, jellies, and other add-ons.

Distribute your data among four meals for each day: breakfast, lunch, dinner, and snacks. Keep track of your physical activity for all three of those days. Record all the minutes spent walking or biking to class, working out, vacuuming rugs, washing cars, playing sports, dancing with friends, or any other nonsedentary behavior.

When finished, select the Reports tab and go to Intake vs. Click the Generate Report button and choose all meals.

What information on the report most surprised you? From the Reports tab, go to Energy Balance. Using Day Two from the three-day diet intake , choose all meals and generate a report. Was your calorie intake over or under the recommended calories kcals for your profile? Was it higher or lower than expected? You will analyze your energy balance in more detail later, in Chapter 9. Go to www.

Government health and nutrition sites: www. View Healthy People Objectives for the Nation: www. Visit the food and nutrition center of the Mayo Clinic: www. Create a chart of your family health history at the U. Learn more about basic science research from the National Science Foundation and Research!

America: www. Energy-yielding nutrients include all of the following except: A. Organic nutrients include all of the following except: A. One of the characteristics of a nutritious diet is that the diet provides no constituent in excess. This principle of diet planning is called: 6. Studies of populations in which observation is accompanied by experimental manipulation of some population members are referred to as: A.

A slice of peach pie supplies calories with 48 units of vitamin A; one large peach provides 42 calories and 53 units of vitamin A.

This is an example of: A. Which of the following is an example of a processed food? Both heart disease and cancer are due to genetic causes, and diet cannot influence whether they occur. Both carbohydrates and protein have 4 calories per gram. People most often choose foods for the nutrients they provide.

Government attempts at quackery regulation and enforcement over the past decades have largely failed. When scam products are garden tools or stain removers, hoodwinked consumers may lose a few dollars and some pride. When a sick person wastes time with quack treatments, serious problems can easily advance while proper treatment is delayed.

Each year, consumers spend a deluge of dollars on nutrition-related services and products from both legitimate and fraudulent businesses. The word quackery comes from the term quacksalver, meaning a person who quacks loudly about a miracle product—a lotion or a salve. The statements made may or may not be accurate.

Internet the Net a worldwide network of millions of computers linked together to share information. World Wide Web the Web, commonly abbreviated www a graphical subset of the Internet.

Who is speaking on nutrition? How can people learn to distinguish valid nutrition information from misinformation? Some quackery is easy to identify— like the claims of the salesman in Figure C Other fraudulent nutrition claims are subtle and so more difficult to detect.

Between the extremes of accurate scientific data and intentional quackery lies an abundance of less easily recognized nutrition misinformation. But what qualifies them to give advice? Would following their advice be helpful or harmful? To sift the meaningful nutrition information from the rubble, you must first learn to recognize quackery wherever it presents itself.

When they do, they are careful not to generalize the findings to all people. Their work must survive a screening review Earmarks of Nutrition Quackery Too good to be true Enticingly quick and simple answers to complex problems. Says what most people want to hear. Sounds magical. Suspicions about food supply Urges distrust of the current methods of medicine or suspicion of the regular food supply. Soft cover. ISBN Book only. Clean inside.

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